Reptiles

 

Madagascar is unique; an island continent whose plants and animals have evolved in isolation for

more than 150 million years. Due to its proximity with Africa, the flora and fauna have an obvious

kinship with the continent. However some Malagasy reptiles have their closest relatives not in Africa,

but in South America. There are also curious gaps and exciting excesses that make the island a very

special region. Adders and cobras are absent, as are ungulates, wild cats and canids. In glorious

profusion however, are orchids (more than in all of Africa), half of all chameleons, and the richest

primate fauna in all the world (albeit restricted to lemurs). Humans arrived late, only some 1500 years

ago, sailing across the Indian Ocean from the East Indies. In a short time they had hunted to

extinction all the terrestrial megafauna. Most of the original habitats have been extensively altered, a

process which continues largely unabated.

 

While such habitat changes sometimes benefit certain animals, the majority are usually less tolerant,

or entirely incapable of adjusting to a modified environment. Specialist species with very particular

habitat requirements often demand pristine conditions to ensure their survival. In response to this

environmental crisis, scientists are actively searching the remaining forest fragments for the survivors

of this unique radiation.

 

Amphibians and reptiles usually proliferate in tropical areas, and Madagascar is no exception. The

island's diverse climatic, geological and botanical elements ultimately contribute to its faunal richness

and diversity. Currently more than 300 reptile species and some 170 frog species have been

recorded.

 

In spite of these already impressive figures, new species are being discovered and described at a

higher rate than ever, and within this decade, 49 new reptile species and amphibians have been

described while many others await formal description. The lists continue to expand annually.

One would expect the fauna of at least the nature reserves to be well documented, but this is not the

case. For instance, much of the Montagne d'Ambre mountain range in northern Madagascar currently

receives protection by means of a special reserve and a national park which were created in 1958.

Despite a history of collecting in the area that dates back over a century, a 2-month herpetofaunal

survey in 1991-2 more than doubled the amphibian & reptile checklist. Out of a total of 70 species

found for that survey, 37 were new records to the area. Incredibly, 7 of these proved to be new

species.

 

Geckos

Some of the newly discovered reptiles are so restricted that they are obvious conservation concerns.

In fact, one new Leaf-Tailed Gecko, Uroplatus malama, is known from only a single specimen from a

remnant of low montane rainforest in south-eastern Madagascar. A similar species, U. malahelo, is

known from only 2 specimens, collected in 1992, from a minute patch (1500 x 800 metres) of

rainforest in south-eastern Madagascar. It is aptly named, 'malahelo' being Malagasy for sorrow.

When the specimens were collected, their habitat was already being selectively logged and that forest

was not expected to last more than 4 years. It may now be extinct.

 

The large, attractive new species Paroedura masobe is considered by many to be the most beautiful

gecko on the island. It is known from a single site, fortunately within the boundaries of the Zahamena

National Park. But its size and appearance guarantee its entrance into the insatiable international pet

trade.

Day geckos (Phelsuma) and Leaf-tailed Geckos (Uroplatus) also elicit great excitement among

visitors. Day geckos' brilliant neon colouration, abundance and approachability make them perfect

subjects for photographers. In contrast, the Leaf-tailed Geckos are masters of camoflage: not only are

they cryptically coloured, but some have ragged fringes along the throat, body and limbs - particularly

U. fimbriatus and U. henkeli. When pressed against a tree, these fringes break the outline of the body

and prevent a telltale shadow. With more than 300 teeth, the fringed gecko U. fimbriatus, has more

teeth than any other reptile or mammal on earth.

 

Iguanids and gerrhosaurids are conspicuous medium to large diurnal lizards. They inhabit forests,

deserts and rocky outcrops. The gerrhosaurid Zonosaurus maximus, is the largest Malagasy lizard,

and locally is known as 'petite cayman', due to its size and aquatic habits.

 

Frogs

Of the approx 170 frog species, a staggering 99% are endemic. The eastern rainforests abound with

frogs. More than 90 species are known to occur in the 810 hectare Perinet Analamazaotra rainforest

reserve, making it one of the highest frog richness in the world. But there are only a few families

represented, with some frog families being notably absent. These include the almost cosmopolitan

Bufonidae (toads) and the limbless amphibians (caecilians), which exist in much of Africa and the

Seychelles. Photographers would be hard pushed to find more photogenic frogs than the Boophis

genus. But good pics don't come easily - to find these creatures you have to spend many hours at

night in a rainforest, trying to home in on their calls. Rainy nights are the most productive, when the

frogs engage in a frenzy of calling and spawning. 36 species are currently known in this genus, but its

far from the sum total: since 1990, 13 new species were described with more awaiting scientific

names.

 

Some of the most popular frogs in captivity are the mantellas. These small diurnal frogs are strikingly

lovely, displaying a variety of vivid patterns. Their brilliant colours may serve to warn predators of

toxic elements present in their skin, (aposematic coloration) that they share with the South American

Poison-arrow Frog. This is an extraordinary case of convergence (parallel evolution). Especially

prized is the Golden Mantella (Mantella aurantiaca), and thousands of specimens are exported

annually for the exotic pet trade in America and Europe. Other mantellas are also regularly exported.

Malagasy microhylids include a multitude of shapes, colours and sizes, and are represented by 10

genera. It is in this family that most new species still have to be described. The best known species is

the Tomato Frog Dyscophus antongili, an obese red frog which can secrete a toxic substance from its

skin to deter potential predators like the Giant Hognosed Snake Leioheterodon madagascariensis.

Most Malagasy frogs do not follow the typical amphibian life cycle in which eggs laid in water hatch

into tadpoles that eventually metamorphose into small frogs. The many Mantidactylus frogs lay eggs

on the forest floor near water, or on vegetation overhanging streams. The tadpoles emerge and

wiggle their way towards water, to complete their life cycles in the usual way. But some frogs have

skipped the free-swimming tadpole stage completely and are terrestrial breeders. One such genus is

Stumpffia: these minute frogs lay eggs in foam nests hidden among leaves on the forest floor. The

non-feeding tadpoles develop directly into tiny froglets. Those of S. pygmaea measure less than 3mm

in body length, making them the smallest frog - if not the smallest of all vertebrates - in the world!

Snakes

The most striking feature of the more than 80 species of Malagasy snakes, is the absence of deadly

venomous varieties. All are clinically harmless. Larger non-venomous species may inflict a painful

bite, but the back-fanged species possess venoms that are either too weak or produced in too low

quantities to be of any danger to humans.

 

With such an absence of dangerous snakes one would expect the Malagasy to have no fear of

snakes. But this isn't the case. For one, the harmless "fandrefiala" (Ithcyphus miniatus), is feared

around much of the country. Local people believe it drops tail-first from trees, stiff as an arrow, to stab

any passing cattle or humans.

 

The largest snakes include 3 boas, whose closest relatives live in the Amazon basin. (Pythons, which

abound in Africa and Asia, are absent from Madagascar). All 3 boas are protected from the

international trade, but their flesh and skins are increasingly exploited; belts and other articles are

often found for sale in markets.

New snakes are being discovered on a fairly regular basis. One of the island's most unusual serpents

is the twig mimicking Spear-nosed Snake, Langaha madagascariensis. This species exhibits sexual

dimorphism, the sexes being different in coloration and in shape of their nasal appendages.

Lizards are abundant on Madagascar, with more than 210 species in 5 families, 4 of which are

common in Africa. Absent however, are common African and Asian lizards like lacertids, agamas and

monitors. Repeating the theme found in snakes, the island is home to a few Iguanid lizards, a group

otherwise restricted to the Americas and a few Pacific islands.

 

Chameleons

Madagascar is justifiably famous for its chameleons - it contains around half the world's species.

Among these is the world's largest and smallest chameleons. Perhaps the most peculiar are the

small, Stump-tailed Brookesia species. They clamber about on leaf litter on the forest floor where their

drab colors and twig-like body shapes make them close to invisible to casual observers. Of the more

typical chameleons, Oustalet's Chameleon (Furcifer oustaleti) and Parson's Chameleon (Calumma

parsoni) are immense, both exceeding 60 cm in length. The appearance of many chameleons differs

so markedly between the sexes that to the uninformed, they apear to be different species. This radical

sexual dimorphism is best illustrated by F. minor and F. labordi, in which only males possess

extravagant. Females however, are more brightly colored. While visitors are fascinated by

chameleons, local people often find them repulsive and so, they are the subject of various Malagasy

proverbs and expressions.

 

Tortoises

4 of the island's 5 terrestrial tortoises are endemic. The Plowshare Tortoise (Geochelone yniphora) is

probably the world's rarest tortoise, and is confined to a small area around Baly Bay in northwest

Madagascar. In an effort to insure its survival, the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust established a

captive breeding project at Ampijoroa Forest Station, but this very successful project suffered a

severe setback in mid 1996, when 2 adults and 73 juveniles were stolen from the centre and

smuggled to Europe for the international pet trade. Another rare species is the Flat-tailed Tortoise, or

"Kapidolo" (Pyxis planicauda), , which means 'tomb tortoise' in Malagasy, so named because many

are found in the tiny patches of woodland left protected to conceal Sakalava burial tombs. This small

species aestivates most of the year while it is dry, only emerging in response to the rains in January

to April. The island's smallest chelonian is the Spider Tortoise, P. arachnoides or 'Kapika'. It inhabits

the spiny desert in the semi arid south, along with the large, common Madagascar Radiated Tortoise

(Geochelone radiata). The latter is heavily collected for the pot and for the pet trade.

 

Of 4 resident freshwater terrapins, only the Madagascar Big-headed Turtle Erymnochelys

madagascariensis, is endemic. Its also the only Old World representative of a family otherwise local

to South America. It is protected by law but reinforcement is really impossible and many are caught

accidentally in seine fishing nets, and then eaten. It is also very sensitive to exploitation in its western

lakes habitat.

 

One factor contributing to its decline, is a long juvenile stage and large adult size. So it becomes large

enough to eat long before sexual maturity. (Marine Turtles too, are heavily exploited in Madagascar; a

1971 survey revealed that annually, some 13 000 are killed along the Malagasy coast).

 

The future for Madagascar's herpetofauna

From the above synopsis, it’s painfully clear that Madagascar's herpetofauna is in huge demand for

the international pet trade. Until the mid 1980's, Malagasy herps were poorly represented in the exotic

pet market, but this is not the case today. Between 1986 - 1991, some 145 000 specimens of 17 day

gecko species, were exported from the island. CITES figures for chameleon exports from 1986 -

1991, indicate 38 325 specimens from 21 species ! But the most apparent trade book of Malagasy

herps is among frogs: for instance, legally exported mantellas skyrocketed from 230 specimens in

1980, to 11 058 in 1989.

 

BIODEV, a Malagasy task group working in conjunction with the IUCN, has investigated the economic

potential of frog and reptile exports from Madagascar. They calculate an economic potential of US$ 1

million (including $ 150 000 for chameleons and $ 240 000 for day geckos) per annum. This takes into

account that most of the economic benefit from this animal trade will still accrue to the importing

countries, where sales of Malagasy chameleons alone will probably top $ 1 million. In terms of foreign

revenue to the Malagasy people, this trade will be equivalent to clearing some 16 000 hectares of

Malagasy forest every year. Such a reversal in conservation priorities from protection to utilization can

only work if profits from sustainable harvesting are equitably distributed to the people whose survival

currently depends on cutting and burning their forests. In reality however, this is not the case.

Currently, the huge profit margins obtained exploiting Malagasy reptiles, benefit just a few individual

importers and exporters. A Malagasy villager collecting a day gecko, will earn a measly Fmg 50

(about US$ 0. 03), whereas the local exporter sells the animal for US$ 9 - 13. By the time it sells in

the USA, it will fetch US$ 75. In other words, there's a 2500- fold price increase here. The big

question then, is: can Malagasy villagers be expected to protect forests and value sustainable

harvesting when they make only US$ 3 for every 100 lizards they catch?

 

A possible solution could be for Malagasy authorities to place greater emphasis on ecotourism, to

encourage more people to visit the island and to place greater value on protecting their herpetofauna.

There's no doubt that Madagascar can be a prime ecotourism hotspot, what with its amazingly

diverse wildlife which is enough to impress any naturalist. But can frogs and reptiles really serve as a

drawcard when most people view them with abhorrence ? Here, we need to look at other examples

where certain reptiles are big tourist attractions : the Komodo Dragons of Indonesia, and the Giant

Tortoises of the Galapagos, illustrate this beautifully. Annually, they attract thousands of tourists to

their home territories, as remote as these may be. Nesting Turtles in other parts of the world, do the

same. If this is the case, then surely Madagascar's herpetofauna too, is destined to draw the crowds

to the island's protected areas.